The Rise, Fall, and Future of Muslim Political Power

Muslims as a world superpowers established four caliphates until the defeat of Ottomans in world war I.

After Muhammad ﷺ Muslims established four caliphates as the world's superpower. The first were the Rashidun caliphate, 632-661, followed by Umayyad Caliphate, 661- 750, Abbasid Caliphate, 750-1258, and the Ottoman caliphate, 1299-1922.

An brief account of the above is as follow: Islam, the last of Abrahamic faiths was preached by Muhammad ﷺ who was born in Mecca in 570 A.C. and died in Medina on 632. He conquered Mecca and Arabia, and established the first Islamic state as welfare political entity in Medina as its capital with a constitution.

After his death, the Muslim community appointed Abu Bakr to lead them as the first caliph.

Abu Bakr gave the following memorable speech to those assembled: "O people, I have been appointed over you, thug I am not the best among you. If I do well, then help me; and if I act wrongly, then correct me. Truthfulness is synonymous with fulfilling the trust, and lying is equivalent to treachery. The weak among you is deemed strong to me, until I take from them what is rightfully (someone else's), insha Allah.

No group of people abandons military/armed struggle in the path of Allah, except that Allah makes them suffer humiliation. And evil/mischief does not become widespread among a people, except that Allah inflicts them with widespread calamity. Obey me so long as I obey Allah and His Messenger. And if I disobey Allah and His Messenger, then I have no right to your obedience. Stand up now to pray, may Allah have mercy on you."

Abu Bakr lived for only two years as a caliph. An exemplary leader, he live simply, assiduously fulfilled his obligations, and was accessible to his people. But he stood firm when some tribes, in the wake of Prophet's death, renounced Islam. AbuBakr swiftly disciplined them. Later, he consolidated support among the tribes within the Arabian Peninsula and funneled their energies against the powerful empires of the East - the Sassanians in Persia, and Byzantines in Syria, and Egypt. Thus Abu Bakr demonstrated the viability of Muslim state.

The second caliph, Umar appointed by Abu Bakr in a written testament continued to demonstrate the viability of the Islamic state. He was a mighty figure before the advent of Islam in the region, and played an influential role in the propagation of Islam. His services as a caliph have been very influential and his reforms are still serving in guiding the current governments.

The territory of Islamic state expanded into byzantine and And Sassanid empires and contributed large revenue collection and establishing a central treasury in Medina. He decided to increase the water capacity by allowing canals for the first time in history in the department of irrigation.

He ended the policy of imposing tax on religious minorities and allowed free trade in the empire. Army was recognized as a separate department and soldiers were given fixed salaries and allowances for their services.

After death of Umar, an advisory council selected the third caliph Uthman. During his rule, the first serious strains on Islamic unity appeared. He appointed his cousin Mu'awiya as governor of Syria, who established an Arab navy, which fought a series of battles with Byzantines. Uthman pushed with the pacification of Persia, and continued to defend against Byzantines, added Libya and Armenia to the empire.

Of greater service to Islam, was his compilation of the text of Quran as revealed to the Prophet ﷺ. He himself could recite the entire Qur'an through memory, he realizing the original message may be inadvertently distorted by rapid expansion of Islamic Empire, he appointed a committee to collect the canonical verses. The result was the text that is accepted to this day throughout the Muslim world.

However, these successes were overshadowed by serious administrative weakness. Uthman was accused of favoritism to members of his family. Negotiations over these grievances were opened, but they soon collapsed, and Uthman was killed, which caused a rift in the community that has never entirely closed.

The rift was widened as soon as Ali, cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet was chosen as the fourth caliph. At issue was the caliphate of Ali. The relatives of Uthman, in particular Mu'awiyah, the powerful governor of Syria, believed caliphate of Ali was invalid because his caliphate had been supported by those responsible for Uthman's unavenged death. The conflict came to a climax at Siffin, near the Euphrates, and eventually resulted In a major division in Sunnites and Shi'ites, or partisans of Ali, a division was to color the subsequent history of Islam.

The countries conquered by the four rightly-guided caliphs included Egypt, Syria, Iran, Iraq, and much of Afghanistan and Baluchistan.

The Umayyads, descended from Umayya Ibn Abd Shams, a prominent clan of Quraysh) were the second of the four major caliphates established after the death of Muhammad ﷺ. The Umayyad Caliphate established the first hereditary rule by Mu'awayah after the Rashidun.

Umayyads expanded Islamic rule over the three continents, and incorporated the Caucasus, Transoxiana, Sindh the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula from Europe. At its greatest, it was the fifth largest empire in history in both area and population. Although the nomadic Berber tribes recognized the supremacy of the caliph, the de facto power was in the hands of local emirs.

Muslim masses considered that Umayyad hereditary inheritance was illegitimate, and there were numerous rebellions against the Umayyads, and split within the dynasty.

Umayyad Caliphate lasted for ninety years from 661 to 750, with fourteen rulers. Their rule was divided between the Sufyanids, descendants of Abu Sufyan who ruled from 661 to 684, and the Marwanids who ruled from 684 to 750. The Sufyanids centralized the caliphal authority in Damascus, and Syrian army became the basis of their strength. They were politically organized along Arab tribal lines.

Under Abdul Malik (644-705) son of Marwan who reigned from 685-705 the caliphate continued to expand and he built the great Umayyad mosque in Damascus, and he ordered the construction of Al-Aqsa Mosque, the third holiest place after Mecca and Medina which was completed by his son al-Walid. and also Dome of Rock in Jerusalem.

Umar Abdul Aziz, also called Umar II managed to rule for only three years, 717 -720 and was poisoned by his own family for his unwavering support for justice on Islamic principles. He stopped all military expeditions, and entered into negotiations with non-Arab Muslims who opposed and resented Umayyad rule, and if he had enough time would have succeeded against Abbasids gaining enough support.

Abbasids, an Arab dynasty descended from al-Abbas, an uncle of the Prophet (PBOH), of the Hashemite clan of Quraysh tribe in Mecca. From about 718, members of this family worked to gain control of the empire from the Umayyads, and by skillful propaganda won much support from Shi'ite Arabs and Persians.

Open revolt in 747 led to the defeat of last Umayyad caliph, Marwan II and to the proclamation of first Abbasid caliph, Abu al-Abbas al-Saffah. After overthrew of Umayyads, Abbasids transformed the empire into a multinational Muslim empire and moved from Syria to Iraq with a new capital of Bagdad.

Between 750 and 833, the Abbasid raised the prestige and power of the empire, promoting commerce, industry, arts and science, particularly during the reigns of al-Mansur, Harun al-Rashid, and al-Mammon.

In the early period, the Abbasid al-Mansur, the second caliph of the dynasty, continued the reorganization of the empire administration of the empire along the lines of his Umayyad predecessor Abdul Malik.

Much of the Abbasid administration was left in the hands of well-educated Persian civil servants, many of whom came from families that had traditionally served the Sassanid kings. The important office of wazir (or vizier), chief counselor may have from those models. The vizier was much more than an advisor, and when the caliph was weak, a caliph's vizier became the most powerful man in the empire.

Another system introduced was the developing the Umayyad postal system into an efficient intelligence service, with post masters in outlaying provinces as eyes and ears of the central government and filing regular reports on everything of importance. Since all government business was in Arabic, manuals of correct usage were written for non-Arab speakers.

The temporal power of Abbasids began to decline when al-Mu'tasim introduced non-Muslim Berbers and especially Turkish mercenary forces into his personal army. Although these troops were converted to Islam, the base of imperial unity through religion was gone, and some of army officers learned to control the caliphate.

The Abbasid Empire lasted for about 500 years, from 750 to 1258 when its capital, Baghdad was sacked by Mongol army under Hulagu khan. Thereafter, it was gradually replaced by several different dynasties starting in the 10th century, though they retained a symbolic religious authority. The Buyids, a Shia sect took control of Baghdad in 945, followed by the Seljuk Turks in 1055.

A separate line of Abbasid caliphs continued as ceremonial rulers under the Mamluks sultans in Cairo from 1261until their rule ended in 1517 with the Ottoman conquest. The end of main period of Abbasids in Baghdad is marked by the sack of Baghdad by the Mongol army in 1258.

Ottoman state was founded by Osman 1 around 1299. Ottoman's grandson Murad I laid the foundation for an institutionalized Ottoman state continued by Murad his son Bayezid 1. The Ottoman dynasty continued to expand it for several generations, controlling much of southeastern Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa at its peak.

The Ottoman Empire was expanded by Suleiman the Magnificent who ruled from 1520 to 1566. He brought the Empire to its peak in terms of its territorial extent, wealth, and cultural achievements. His reign is considered a "golden age" when the empire expanded significantly and was its in 1683, just before the Battle of Vienna, and there were major developments in arts and culture.

The Ottoman Empire took a fateful decision to join the Central Powers led by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Bulgaria against the Allied Powers led by Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Japan and the United States. The war ended by an armistice on November 11, 1918 which halted the fighting and ended the war by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919.

The Ottoman Empire joined WW1 on the side of the Central Powers due to a desire to recover territory lost in Balkan Wars, through machinations of Young Turks political faction, and lack of support from Allied powers. Germany was seen as a strong ally especially because of Ottoman traditional enemy, Russia.

The Ottoman Empire entered a period of decline after the death of Suleiman, the empire continued to maintain a strong economy into much of the 18th century. But they suffered military defeats in the late 18th and early 19th century, culminating in loss of territory with rising nationalism in the Balkans.

The Ottoman Empire was destroyed by the combination of its defeat in WWI and subsequent partitioning by the victorious Allied powers, along with the rise of Turkish nationalism led by Mustafa Kemal, who is called Ataturk. Kemal abolished the Sultanate in 1922, officially ending the empire, and established the modern Republic of Turkey in 1923.

Following its defeat, the Ottoman Empire was occupied and its land was divided among the Allied powers, primarily France and Great Britain through agreements like the Sykes- Picot Agreement. A civil war broke out between those who supported the Sultan and the movement led by Mustafa Kemal.

By the end of WWI conflict, the Ottoman Empire had lost millions of its former subjects, and most of its Arab provinces, Syria to France, and Arabia, Iraq, Jordan, and Palestine to Great Britain. The Empire was reduced to the lands of Anatolia.

A rot set up in the body politic of Muslim Ummah caused by the breakup of caliphate and subsequent decline of independent Muslim states. And the Europe after a thousand-year-dark-age was waking up thanks to its contact with the Islamic civilization, followed by renaissance, and industrial revolution. It emerged as a powerful rival.

The European imperialism caused indescribable harm and injustice to to Muslim people in taking away their governments and freedoms, political and otherwise. It was humiliating and threatened the very foundation of the Islamic society, as European rulers replaced traditional Muslim institutions with the Western ones, and Sharia based on transcendental sources of Qur'an and Sunnah with secular man-made laws. It is heartening to note that due to Muslim demand for restoring Sharia, many governments including Pakistan have agreed to make laws subservient to Sharia.

Muslims had to struggle to regain their independence, many became shell-shocked avoiding contact with new masters, and were left behind in getting educated in modern sciences and technology. Simultaneously, a number of those educated in the West, got brainwashed and became aliens in their own lands and their people in identity and culture, and became obstacles for the Islamic revivalist movements.

Islamic forces, Islamic thinkers and a number of political leaders, such as Muhammad Iqbal (1887-1938) and Mawlana Abul- Ala Mawdudi (1903-1979) in Pakistan played an important part in shaping Muslim struggles for liberation from colonialism. These movements and thinkers articulated their liberation and anti-colonialism in the language of Jihad, which the Muslim masses understood.

By the mid-1970s most Muslim territories had gained independence, but the legacies of colonialism continued to to shape and reshape their politics, economics, and societies. Among these is the concept of state that was non-existent during the caliphate and later Muslim states, despite being conscious of their various differences. The idea of a Muslim state much like nationalism is imported from the West.

The colonial West left the independent countries with a huge debt, and they had to borrow from Western financial institutions such as International Monetary Institution to pay off their debt.

While the colonialists dismantled institutions that cared for the welfare of Muslim community, the only institution they were interested in was enlisting strong armies to serve their colonial wars, WWI and WWII wherein millions of Muslims were killed. And at their independence, they were left at the mercy of strong armies, which instead of defending the country, took over the reins of power through guns at their disposal.

Thus one after another Muslim lands became victims of the rule by the army Algeria to Indonesia. These regimes were soon coopted and supported by the West on the premise of maintaining security and stability and that it was easy to control one person rather a people-based democratic system. This has become the norm in countries like Pakistan, which has become stronger today.

The European colonialists divided the Muslim countries into petty states, such as the British did in splitting the Ottoman Empire into one-city states in the Arabian Gulf and created absolute monarchies in Saudi Arabia, Morocco and Jordan which came out of nowhere to serve their colonial interests.

The United States emerged as a neo-colonialist imperialistic power after WWII taking over from the Europeans. In its hegemonic policy it provided support to many dictatorial regimes of the former Soviet Union such as Uzbekistan and the authoritarian regimes in the Middle East such as Saudi Arabia and Egypt.

The area occupied by Israel now was part of Ottoman Empire, and it was occupied by the British as a trust territory after the defeat of Ottoman Empire, and it the United States that provided it its unflinching support. The U.S. administrations have given it billions of tax-payer dollars in aid every year, and uses its veto against resolutions aimed at Israel in the United Nations Organization

May 1948 saw the start of mass displacement in which over 700,000 Palestinians were forced from their homes Over the course of the 1948, which lasted until January 1949, Israeli forces destroy more than 530 Palestinian villages and carried out several massacres, killing some 15,000 people. 78% of Palestine's historic territory was captured and used to establish what is now Israel.

The remaining land was divided into Occupied Palestinian Territory - The West Bank, including Eat Jerusalem and the Gaza Strip. The descendants of many of the Palestinians who fled in 1948 remain displaced to this day, both within and around the world. There are now some 6 million refugees. Nakba, or catastrophe is officially commemorated annually on May 15, at the UN.

Hamas, an acronym for resistance, is a Palestinian liberation group. Seeing that more and more Arab states were recognizing Israel and establishing normal relations with it, Hamas, which rules Gaza strip launched a surprise attack on southern Israel on October 7, 2025 killing 1,405 people and taking at 200 hostages. Israel unleashed the full force of its firepower on besieged Palestinians in the Gaza strip killing more than 7,000 people, and death toll rising almost every hour.

57 Muslim countries from four continents have joined together to form an Organization of Islamic Cooperation, which is the second largest intergovernmental organization in the world after the United Nation with a collective population reaching over 1.8 billion. It was established by 24 member states in 1969, a month after a Jewish arsonist from Australia set fire to the holy Al-Aqsa Mosque. The attack on the mosque destroyed part of the roof and the 800-year-old pulpit of Salahuddin, best known for recapturing Jerusalem from the crusaders in the 12th century.

Reacting to the incident, The Muslim representatives met in Morocco capital of Rabat and established the OIC as an organization that would promote cooperation across the Muslim world. In March 1970, the first Islamic Conference of Foreign Ministers was held in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia and planned for setting a permanent secretariat for the organization.

Issues central to Palestine have been central to the OIC's agenda and summit discussions. The organization has continuously condemned what member states consider Israeli aggressions against the Palestinians. Experts say while the organization has been effective in promoting cultural and educational projects, its political capabilities remain severely limited.

Following Israel attack on Qatar on September 9, 2025 in response to Israel's air strikes on Hamas leaders in Doha an emergency meeting of Arab and Islamic states was called by Qatar on September 15, 2025. The meeting was chaired by Qatar's Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani. At the summit, the participants states strongly condemned the Israel "aggression "against Qatar describing it as a "dangerous escalation and an assault on diplomatic efforts to restore peace, given Doha's role as a mediator in efforts to end the war in Gaza and facilitate the release of hostages and prisoners."

The final communique of the emergency Arab-Islamic Summit "affirmed its absolute support for the State of Qatar, its security, stability, sovereignty, and the safety of its citizens, standing united by its side in the face of Israeli aggression."

Gulf Cooperation Council is an organization that was founded by leaders of six Arab states - United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Qatar and Kuwait when they met in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates on May 25, 1981 to effect coordination to achieve unity in all fields and deepen and strengthen relations and cooperation among their citizens founded on the creed of Islam. The decision was not a product of the moment, but an embodiment of historical, social and cultural reality. Therefore the GCC was a continuation and institutionalization of old prevailing realities, and a fulfilment of the aspirations of its citizens towards Arab regional unity.

The Arab states for decades looked externally for the security, particularly to the West, but the West was no longer a reliable protector or the Gulf such as the September attack on Doha by Israel. The uncertainty prompted the GCC member states to consider other options for their security.

"Saudi Arabia signs mutual defense pact with nuclear-armed Pakistan" declared an article in Aljazeera on September 17, 2025. "Pact declares any attack on Saudi Arabia or Pakistan an attack on both, deepening shared security alliance."

"This agreement, which reflects the shared commitment of both nations to enhance their security and to achieve security and peace in the region and the world, aims to develop aspects of defense cooperation between two countries and strengthen joint deterrence against any aggression. The agreement states that any aggression against either country shall be considered an aggression against both," a joint statement said, according to Saudi Press Agency.

A subsequent article on Al Jazeera on September 18, 2025 called it "Watershed: How Saudi-Pakistan defense pact reshapes region's geopolitics." "The deal comes at a critical moment. Regional politics have been upended by two years of Israeli aggression - including its war on Gaza and strikes on neighboring states - capped by last week's Israeli attack on Doha, Qatar's capital, which borders Saudi Arabia."

"But it also comes amid heightened tensions between India and Pakistan, after a short but intense conflict in May in which they struck each other's military bases over four days, taking South Asia to the brink of a full-fledged war between nuclear-armed neighbors."

Pakistan's Ministry of Foreign Affairs said the agreement with Saudi Arabia reflects the "shared commitment" of both nations to strengthen security and promote regional peace, while also pledging to "strengthen joint deterrence against any aggression." "The agreement states that any aggression against either country shall be considered an aggression against both", the ministry said.

Pakistan previously maintained mutual defense treaties with the United States during the Cold War, but they crumbled by the '70s. Even with China, despite extensive defense cooperation, Pakistan lacks a formal defense pact. The deal with Saudi Arabia could serve as a template for Pakistan to engage in similar bilateral cooperation with the United Arab Emirates and Qatar, two key Gulf partners.

On September 22, 2025 a high-level conference of UN General Assembly on the future status of Palestine concluded with groundbreaking momentum as heads of state and government and other senior officials from 10 countries announced their recognition of an independent state of Palestine,

Co-chaired by France and Saudi Arabia, the Conference for peaceful settlement of the State of Palestine and implementation of the "Two-State Solution." Emanuel Macron, President of France opened the UN gathering, and declared recognition of the of the State of Palestine as "a way of affirming that the Palestinian people is not a people too many. Further, recognition of the legitimate rights of the Palestinian people "takes nothing away from the rights of the people of Israel, who France supported from day one", he said.

While "some might say it is too late, others might say it is early" for recognition. he stressed "we can no longer wait." Noting the October 7 attack "remains an open wound for the Israeli soul and for universal conscience" and condemning it unequivocally, he affirmed "you cannot show weakness in the face of terrorism" but "we also know the perils of endless wars."

Along with him, others recognizing the State of Palestine were Andorra, Australia, Belgium, Canada, Luxembourg, Malta, Monaco, Portugal, San Marino, and the United Kingdom.

Currently, the State of Palestine is recognized as a sovereign nation by 157 of the 193 UN member states, representing 81 percent of the international community. In addition, it is recognized by the Holy See, the governing body of the Catholic Church and Vatican City, which holds UN nonmember observer status.

On September 25, 2025 BBC reported Trump told White House reporters ahead of Netanyahu's address to the UN General Assembly, "I will not allow Israel to annex the West Bank... It's not going to happen." Trump also said a ceasefire deal over the war in Gaza was "pretty close."

An ABC News report on September 29, 2025 said that Trump unveiled a 20 point sweeping Gaza peace plan including a U.S. backed ceasefire that the White House said that will bring the war to an immediate end. He said Israel has accepted the proposal but the success of the plan hinges on the cooperation of Hamas.

Speaking alongside the president, Netanyahu appeared to sign off on the proposal "We are at a minimum very, very close. I believe we are taking a a critical step towards both ending the war in Gaza and setting the stage for dramatically advancing peace in the Middle East" Netanyahu said. Hamas did not immediately respond to comments, but an official familiar with negotiations said mediators had not yet fully briefed the group on the latest peace plan.

The 20-point plan called for the release of all Israeli hostages held in Gaza within 72 hours of Israel accepting the agreement. In exchange, more than 2,000 Palestinian prisoners would be released, all military operations will suspended, and "battle lines will remain frozen until conditions are met for the complete staged withdrawal, according to the plan. The release also promised that if the deal is enacted, members of Hamas "who commit to peaceful co-existence and to decommission their weapons will be given amnesty." "Members of Hamas who wish to leave Gaza will be provided safe passage to receiving countries", the proposal read.

Trump administration expected certain terms of the plan will be implements regardless of whether Hamas accepted the proposal, including the creation of temporary "International Stabilization Force" or ISF with Arab and other international partners to oversee the security of Gaza.

The ISF will train and provide support to vetted Palestinian police forces in Gaza and will consult with Jordan and Egypt who have extensive experience in the field. The framework also required that that "Hamas and other factions agree to not have any roe in governance of Gaza, directly, indirectly, or in any form."

There were signs that Israel had come under diplomatic pressure to comply with the Trump White House agenda. The White House released a statement saying it held a three-way phone call with Trump, Netanyahu and the prime minister of Qatar, and during the conversation, Netanyahu "expressed his deep regret " that an Israeli missile strike on Doha earlier in the month targeting Hamas officials had "unintentionally kill a Qatari serviceman."

On October 3, 2025 Hamas said it accepted several parts of President Trump's Gaza plan for a ceasefire, in Israel's nearly two -year genocidal war on Gaza, but some elements of the proposal required further negotiations.

Trump responded by telling Israel to "immediately stop bombing Gaza", adding that Hamas was "ready for a lasting peace." While overall relentless Israeli bombardment appeared to have eased relatively, its military carried out a drone strike on a tent in Southern Gaza, killing two children and injuring several other people, a source at the Nasser Medical Complex told Aljazeera.

Following the Gaza ceasefire plan, Trump invited political leaders from around the world, and convened a meeting in Egyptian seaside resort of Sharm el-Sheikh on October 13, 2025. Trump envisioned a glimmering future for Gaza as a hub for development and investment, even as Gaza Strip lay in ruins following Israel's devastating, two-year assault.

On November 14, 2025 the United States drafted a resolution after consultation and in cooperation with UN Council members and partners in the region and issued a statement as the Member States of the United States, Qatar, Egypt, The United Arab Emirates, The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, Pakistan, Jordan, and Turkiye. It expressed joint support for the Security Council Resolution which offers a pathway to Palestinian self-determination determination and statehood providing a viable path towards peace and stability, not only between the Israelis and Palestinians, but for the entire region.

It is time for the Muslim countries to realize that they could strengthen themselves by mutual defense pacts and not look to the West which keeps its hegemonic relationship through maintaining status quo in the name of stability.

Demographic studies carried out by the Washing-based Pew Research Institute indicate that the world's Muslim population is expected to increase by about 35% in the next 20 years, rising from 1.6 billion in 2010 to 2.2 billion by 2030. Globally, the Muslim population is forecast to grow about twice the rate of non-Muslim population over the next two decades - an average annual growth rate of 1.5 for Muslims, compared with 0.7% for non-Muslims. If current rates continue, Muslims will make up 26.4% of the world's total projection projected population 8.3 billion in 2030, up from 23.4% of the estimated 2010 world population of 6.9 billion.

Thus mutual defense pacts are commensurate with increased Muslim population and its self-dependability to restore dreams of past glory.