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saalih 
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Posted: 08 August 2005 at 1:39pm |
| Jabir Ibn Haiyan: Father of Chemistry |
| 7/26/2004 1:23:00 PM GMT |
Jabir Ibn Haiyan, known as the alchemist Geber of the Middle Ages, is generally known as the Father of Chemistry.
His full name was Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan. He had established himself as one of the leading scientist while he practiced medicine and alchemy in Kufa (in present day Iraq) around 776 C.E. In his early days, he was under the patronage of the Barmaki Vizier during the Abbasid Caliphate of Haroon al-Rashid. Jabir died in Kufa in 803 C.E.
Jabir's major contribution was in the field of Chemistry. He is famous for writing more than one hundred monumental treatises, of which twenty-two deal with chemistry and alchemy. He introduced experimental investigation into alchemy (derived from Arabic word al-Kimiya), creating the momentum for the modern chemistry. Jabir emphasized experimentation and development of methods to achieve reproducibility in his work. He devoted his effort to the development of basic chemical methods and the study of various mechanisms of chemical reactions and thus helped evolve chemistry as a science from the legends of alchemy. Jabir emphasized that definite quantities of various substances are involved in a chemical reaction. Therefore, it can be said that he paved the way for the law of constant proportions.
Jabir discovered mineral and others acids, which he prepared for the first time in his alembic (Anbique). Apart from several contributions of basic nature to alchemy, involving largely the preparation of new compounds and development of chemical methods, he also developed a number of applied chemical processes, thus becoming a pioneer in the field of applied science. His achievements in this field include preparation of various metals, development of steel, dyeing of cloth and tanning of leather, varnishing of water-proof cloth, use of manganese dioxide in glass-making, prevention of rusting, lettering in gold, identification of paints, greases, etc. He also developed aqua regia to dissolve gold. The alembic is his great invention, which made easy and systematic the process of distillation. Jabir was mostly interested in experimentation and was well known for his accuracy in his work.
Jabir's experimental ideas paved the way for now commonly known classification of substances as metals, nonmetals and volatile substances. He discussed three distinct types of substances based on their properties: a) spirits, i.e., those which vaporize on heating, like camphor, arsenic and ammonium chloride, b) metals, e.g., gold, silver, lead, copper, iron, and c) compounds that can be converted into powders.
Although known as an alchemist, Jabir did not seem to have seriously pursued the preparation of noble metals as an alchemist; instead he gave greater attention to the development of basic chemical methods and study of mechanisms of chemical reactions in themselves and thus helped evolve chemistry as a science from the legends of alchemy. He stated that, in chemical reactions, definite quantities of various substances are involved and thus can be said to have paved the way for the law of constant proportions.
Together with chemistry, Jabir was also interested in other sciences such as medicine and astronomy, and had great achievements and contribution in these fields. His books on chemistry, including his Kitab-al-Kimya, and Kitab al-Sab'een were translated into Latin and various European languages. Wit these books being translated to European languages, Jabir�s books became famous in Europe for several centuries and have influenced the evolution of modern chemistry.
Jabir invented several technical terms, such as alkali, which are found today in various European languages and have become part of scientific vocabulary.
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saalih
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Posted: 08 August 2005 at 1:33pm |
| Abu Marwan Ibn Zuhr- Master Physician |
| 8/12/2004 2:14:00 PM GMT |
Ibn Zuhr, known in the West as Avenzoar, was one of the most prominent physicians, clinicians and parasitologist of the Middle Ages.
Abu Marwan Abd al-Malik Ibn Zuhr was born at Seville in 1091/c. 1094 C.E. After he finished his education and specializing in medicine, he joined the service of Almoravides (Al-Murabatun), but after their defeat by the Al-Mohades (Al-Muwahadun), he served under 'Abd al-Mu'min, the first Muwahid ruler. Ibn Zuhr died in Seville in 1161/c. 1162 C.E. As confirmed by George Sarton, Ibn Zuhr was not a Jew, but a Muslim.
Ibn Zuhr limited his work only in Medicine, contrary to the prevailing practice of Muslim scientists who used to have many contributions in different fields. However, by focusing his interest and effort in one field he made original and long-lasting contributions. He highlighted the significance of observation and experiment in his work. Dr. Neuberger in History of Medicine said about him:
"Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) was proficient in the art of dissecting dead human bodies and knew anatomy in detail. His operative technique was superb."
Ibn Zuhr was the first to test different medicines on animals before using them with humans. Also, he was the first to describe in detail scabies, the itch mite, and is thus regarded as the first parasitologist. Also he was the first to give a detailed description of the operation of tracheotomy and practiced direct feeding through the gullet in those cases where normal feeding was not possible. Moreover Ibn Zuhr provided clinical descriptions of intestinal phthisis, inflammation of the middle ear, peri carditis, and mediastinal tumors among others.
Ibn Zuhr�s contribution was included in the monumental works written by him; out of these, however, only three are extant. Kitab al-Taisir fi al-Mudawat wa al-Tadbir (Book of Simplification concerning Therapeutics and Diet), is the most significant work of Ibn Zuhr. It highlights several of Ibn Zuhr's original contributions. The book gives in detail pathological conditions, followed by therapy. His Kitab al-Iqtisad fi Islah al-Anfus wa al-Ajsad (Book of the Middle Course concerning the Reformation of Souls and the Bodies) gives a summary of diseases, therapeutics and hygiene written specially for the benefit of the layman. Kitab al-Aghthiya (Book on Foodstuffs) describes different types of food and drugs and their impact on health.
Ibn Zuhr's influence on the development of medical science was felt for several centuries throughout the world. |
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saalih
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Posted: 08 August 2005 at 1:24pm |
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you can't blame the kid for not knowing what the muslims contributed because they never taught him, two more and i am done.
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saalih
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Posted: 08 August 2005 at 1:23pm |
| IBN AL-BAITAR |
| 9/1/2004 12:00:00 PM GMT |
Abu Muhammad Abdallah Ibn Ahmad Ibn al-Baitar Dhiya al-Din al-Malaqi was one of the best scientists of Muslim Spain and was the greatest botanist and pharmacist of the Middle Ages.
He was born towards the end of the 12th century, in the Spanish city of Malaqa (Malaga), and he died in Damascus in 1248.
He learned botany from Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati who is a well-learned botanist, and with him he started collecting plants from inside and outside Spain.
In 1219 he left Spain on a plant-collecting expedition and traveled along the northern coast of Africa as far as Asia Minor. The exact modes of his travel (whether by land or sea) are not known, but the major stations he visited include Bugia, Qastantunia (Constantinople), Tunis, Tripoli, Barqa and Adalia.
After 1224 he joined the service of al-Kamil, the Egyptian Governor, and was appointed chief herbalist. In 1227 al-Kamil extended his domination to Damascus, and Ibn al-Baitar accompanied him there, which gave him a great opportunity to collect plants.
During his stay in Syria, his researches on plants extended over a vast area, including Arabia and Palestine, where he was able to collect plants from stations located there.
Ibn Baitar's major contribution, Kitab al-Jami fi al-Adwiya al- Mufrada, is one of the greatest botanical compilations dealing with medicinal plants in Arabic. It enjoyed a high status among botanists up to the 16th century and is a systematic work that embodies earlier works, with due criticism, and adds a great part of original contribution. The encyclopedia comprises some 1,400 different items, largely medicinal plants and vegetables, of which about 200 plants were not known earlier. The book refers to the work of some 150 authors mostly Arabic, and it also quotes about 20 early Greek scientists. It was translated into Latin and published in 1758.
His second major work is Kitab al-Mlughni fi al-Adwiya al-Mufrada is an encyclopedia of medicine. The drugs are listed in accordance with their therapeutic value. Thus, its 20 different chapters deal with the plants bearing significance to diseases of various parts of the human body.
On surgical issues he has often quoted the famous Muslim surgeon, Abul Qasim Zahrawi. Besides Arabic, Baitar has given Greek and Latin names of the plants, thus facilitating transfer of knowledge.
Ibn Baitar's contributions are characterized by observation, analysis and classification and have exerted a profound influence on Eastern as well as Western botany and medicine.
Although his book al-Jami was translated and published late in the western languages as mentioned above, yet many scientists had long before that studied various parts of the book and made a lot of references to it.
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saalih
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Posted: 08 August 2005 at 1:22pm |
| Yaqub Ibn Ishaq al-Kindi |
| 9/5/2004 11:45:00 AM GMT |
Abu Yousuf Yaqub Ibn Ishaq al-Kindi was born at Kufa around 800 A.D. He was brilliant in many fields, and on account of his great work he became known as the philosopher of the Arabs. He died in 873 A.D. during the reign of al-M'utamid.
His father was an official of Haroon al-Rashid. Al-Kindi was a contemporary of al-Mamun, al-Mu'tasim and al-Mutawakkil and flourished largely at Baghdad. Mutawakkil employed him formally as a calligrapher. On account of his philosophical views, Mutawakkil got angry with him and confiscated all his books. However, his works were returned later on.
Al-Kindi�s skills cover many fields; he was a philosopher, mathematician, physicist, astronomer, physician, geographer and even an expert in music. It is amazing how he was able to make original contributions to all of these fields.
He wrote four books in mathematics, on the number system and laid the foundation of a large part of modern arithmetic. No doubt the Arabic system of numerals was largely developed by al_Khawarizmi but al-Kindi also made rich contributions to it. He also contributed to spherical geometry to help him in astronomical studies.
In the field of chemistry, he opposed the idea that base metals can be converted to precious metals. In contrast to prevailing alchemical views, he was emphatic that chemical reactions cannot bring about the transformation of elements.
In physics, he made rich contributions to geometrical optics and wrote a book on it. This book later on provided guidance and inspiration to such eminent scientists like Roger Bacon.
In medicine, his major contribution comprises the fact that he was the first one to systematically determine the doses to be administered of all the drugs known at his time. This resolved the conflicting views prevailing among physicians on the dosage that caused difficulties in writing recipes.
Very few information was known about the scientific aspects of music in his time. He pointed out that the various notes that combine to produce harmony have a specific pitch each. Thus, notes with too low or too high pitches are non-pleasant. The degree of harmony depends on the frequency of notes, etc. He also showed that when a sound is produced, it generates waves in the air, which strike the eardrum. His work contains a notation on the determination of pitch.
He was a prolific writer: the total sum of books he wrote was 241, the prominent among which were divided as follows:
Astronomy 16, Arithmetic 11, Geometry 32, Medicine 22, Physics 12, Philosophy 22, Logic 9, Psychology 5, Arts and Music 7.
In addition, various monographs he wrote deal with tides, astronomical instruments, rocks, precious stones, etc.
Also he was an early translator of Greek works into Arabic, but this fact has largely been over-shadowed by his numerous original writings. It is unfortunate that most of his books are no longer extant, but those existing speak very high of his standard of scholarship and contribution.
In Latin he was known as Alkindus, and Gherard of Cremona translated a great number of his books into Latin. His books that were translated into Latin during the Middle Ages comprise Risalah dar Tanjim, Ikhtiyarat al-Ayyam, Ilahyat-e-Aristu, al-Mosiqa, Mad-o-Jazr, and Aduiyah Murakkaba.
Al-Kindi's influence on development of science and philosophy was significant in the revival of sciences in that period. In the Middle Ages, Cardano considered him as one of the twelve greatest minds. His works, in fact, lead to further development of various subjects for centuries, notably physics, mathematics, medicine and music.
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saalih
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Posted: 08 August 2005 at 1:22pm |
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you see muslims new the world was round while they thought it was flat, they had shperes and globes in ther acadamies,
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saalih
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Posted: 08 August 2005 at 1:21pm |
| Nasir Al-Din Al-Tusi |
| 9/8/2004 11:00:00 AM GMT |
Abu Jafar Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn al-Hasan Nasir al-Din al-Tusi is an Iranian Muslim, and was one of the greatest scientists, philosophers, mathematicians, astronomers, theologians and physicians of the 7th/13th century Islamic lands and he was also a prolific writer. He was born in Tus (Khurasan) in 597/1201 C.E. He learnt sciences and philosophy from Kamal al-Din Ibn Yunus and others. He died in Baghdad in 672/1274.
His father was a jurist in the Twelfth Imam School. The school where al-Tusi was educated was mainly a religious establishment. However, while studying in Tus, he was taught other topics by his uncle, which had an important influence on his intellectual development. These topics included logic, physics and metaphysics. He also studied mathematics with other teachers, in particular algebra and geometry.
His ability and talent in learning enabled him to master a number of disciplines in a relatively short period, and he showed a great interest for mathematics, astronomy and the intellectual sciences at a very young age.
At the age of twenty-two or a while later, Tusi joined the court of Nasir al-Din Muhtashim, the Muslim governor of Quhistan, Northeast Iran, where he was accepted into the Islamic community as a novice (mustajib).
A sign of close personal relationship with Muhtashim�s family is to be seen in the dedication of a number of his scholarly works such as Akhlaq-i Nasiri and Akhlaq-i Muhtashimi to Nasir al-Din himself and Risala-yi Mu�iniyya to his son Mu�in al-Din.
In 1256 when the Mongols conquered Almut, Nasir al-Din joined Hulegu's service. Hulegu being himself interested in science, treated al-Tusi with great respect and he was deeply impressed by his knowledge, including his astrological competency; appointed him as one of his ministers, and, later on, as administrator of Auqaf. He was instrumental in the establishment and progress of the observatory at Maragha.
He made significant contributions in a large number of subjects, and it is indeed difficult to present his work in a few words. He wrote one or several treatises on different sciences and subjects including those on geometry, algebra, arithmetic, trigonometry, medicine, metaphysics, logic, ethics and theology. In addition he wrote poetry in Persian.
Being the chief scientist and the supervisor at the observatory established at Maragha, he made significant contributions to astronomy. The observatory was equipped with the best possible equipments, including those collected by the Mongol armies from Baghdad and other Islamic centers. The instruments included astrolabes, representations of constellations, epicycles, shapes of spheres, etc.
He himself invented an instrument 'turquet' that contained two planes. After the devoted work of 12 years at the observatory and with the assistance of his group, he produced new astronomical tables called Al-Zij-Ilkhani dedicated to Ilkhan (Hulegu Khan). Although Tusi had contemplated completing the tables in 30 years, the time required for the completion of planetary cycles, but he had to complete them in 12 years on orders from Hulegu Khan. The tables were largely based on original observations, but also drew upon the then existing knowledge on the subject. The Zij-Ilkhani became the most popular tables among astronomers and remained so till the 15th century.
Nasir al-Din pointed out several serious shortcomings in Ptolemy's astronomy and foreshadowed the later dissatisfaction with the system that culminated in the Copernican reforms.
In mathematics, his major contribution would seem to be in trigonometry, which was compiled by him as a new subject in its own right for the first time. Also he developed the subject of spherical trigonometry, including six fundamental formulas for the solution of spherical right-angled triangles.
In philosophy, his work on ethics entitled Akhlaq-i-Nasri became the most important book on the subject, and remained popular for centuries. His book Tajrid-al-'Aqaid was a major work on al-Kalam (Islamic Scholastic Philosophy) and enjoyed widespread popularity. Several commentaries were written on this book.
In logic al-Tusi followed the teachings of ibn Sina (Avicenna). He wrote five works on the subject, the most important of which is one on inference.
He wrote a famous work on minerals, which contains an interesting theory of colors based on mixtures of black and white, and included chapters on jewels and perfumes. He also wrote on medicine, but his medical works are among his least important.
The list of his known treatises is exhaustive; Brockelmann lists 56 and Sarton 64. About one-fourth of these concern mathematics, another fourth astronomy, another fourth philosophy and religion, and the remainder other subjects.
The books, though originally written in Arabic and Persian, were translated into Latin and other European languages in the Middle Ages and several of these have been printed.
Tusi's influence has been significant in the development of science, notably in mathematics and astronomy. His books were widely consulted for centuries and he has been held in high repute for his rich contributions. Tusi�s fame in his own lifetime guaranteed the survival of almost all of his scholarly output.
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ummziba
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Posted: 07 August 2005 at 5:33pm |
Assalamu alaikum Meedo,
WASP = white, anglo-saxon, protestant
Peace, ummziba.
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Sticks and stones may break my bones, but your words...they break my soul ~
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